Culture and Politics of the country of Mexico

Culture is the way of life of a given people. It entails how people behave and perceive different life issues. It includes aspects like religion, ethnicity, customs, language, beliefs, and food among other aspects that define a people. Culture varies from one place to another depending on the circumstances surrounding a place, for instance, climate and environment and how people perceive things.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Culture and Politics of the country of Mexico specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Politics on the other hand entails the process by which a group of individuals come together and make collective decisions. It could also be seen as a way through which state or governmental affairs are run. This piece of work will give an in depth discussion of the culture and politics of Mexico. Mexico has an interesting culture. Just like any other aspect, culture in Mexico has undergone a lot of changes espe cially as from the 20th century. People’s lifestyle, particularly those in the cities, has become similar to that experienced in Europe and the United States of America. In regard to language, Spanish is widely used in Mexico. However, there are a total of 62 indigenous languages that have been recognized by the Mexico government as national languages. Another cultural aspect in Mexico is art. Mexico is a country that is known for its folk art. The art has its origin from indigenous and Spanish crafts. There is a lot of pottery and garments embroidery. Pre – Columbian architecture is widely spread in the country. In Mexico, religion is left open and there is no one religion that is made official. However, Catholicism has the largest membership, approximately 83%. Protestantism has 9% followers of the total population including Jehovah’s Witness and Seventh-day Adventist. Buddhism, Islam and Judaism are also proclaimed in Mexico although to a small extent. The et hnic groups include the Mestizos and about 52 indigenous ethnic groups (Joseph and Henderson 47). In regard to politics, Mexico government is a federal republic, led by President Felipe Calderà ³n who was elected in the year 2006. The government is founded on a congressional political system and thus the President has got a lot of powers and heads the state, the government as well as well as a multi-party structure. The federal government is deemed to represent the United Mexican States. It is divided into three branches; the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary. The government follows the political constitution of the United Mexican States, of 1817 (Wasserman 99).Advertising Looking for report on cultural studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More There are about seven political parties in Mexico the main ones being the Institutional Revolutionary Party, the National Action Party, and the Party of the Democratic Revol ution. All political parties are required to promote democracy in the country and to act as a medium through which the citizens can participate in public office affairs. Every individual who has reached 18years has a right to vote. In Mexico, there are usually different levels of elections, that is, the presidential elections, the congressional elections, and the State elections. There have been considerable changes in the Mexican politics all aimed at making the country better. However, there exist some political disputes due to varying views by different agencies. This has affected the country’s economy. For this reason, there ought to be a positive move taken by the President, the politicians and the political parties irrespective of the compromise that each unit ought to make for the best of the majority (Starr and Council on Foreign Relations 25). A map showing Mexico Culture and Politics (including the Government, Economy and Population) Source: https://www.factmonster .com/atlas/north-america/mexico Works Cited Joseph, Michael Gilbert, and Henderson Timothy. The Mexico Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002. Print. Starr, Pamela, and Council on Foreign Relations. Challenges for a Post election Mexico: Issues for U.S. Policy. New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 2006. Print.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Culture and Politics of the country of Mexico specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Wasserman, Mark. Everyday Life and Politics in Nineteenth Century Mexico: Men, Women, and War. Albuquerque, New Mexico: UNM Press, 2000. Print. This report on Culture and Politics of the country of Mexico was written and submitted by user Noel V. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Is Political Analysis a Scientific Enterprise Should It Be

Is Political Analysis a Scientific Enterprise Should It Be According to Fay (1996)1, the study of political science involves a close analysis of dates, governments and politics. This discipline concerns with the study of human behavior and all issues related to politics as observed in controlled environments. This means that it would be very difficult to reproduce results through experimental methods.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Is Political Analysis a Scientific Enterprise? Should It Be? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Many scholars have argued that the study should be based on observations rather than experiments. Historically, most advances and conclusions in political science are derived from observations of the general trends of nation’s politics and government. The fact that the results from studying a variety of governments of a given number of nations limits the probability of obtaining reproducible results and thus limits the study of political science t o be classified as a scientific enterprise. Political analysts utilize a variety of means to obtain their research data. Most primary data is obtained through historic records and official documents. The secondary materials have been traditionally derived from results of surveys, case studies, statistical analyses and experimental models and research buildings. Political science builds its theories on critical observations of political elites, individuals and groups, as well as institutions. These patterns are drawn, generalized before the theories are being created. The correlation between the study of political science and science is a subject to debate due to some specifications that scientific studies and models stipulate as mandatory in all scientific models. This paper analyzes some of the scientific requirements in a scientific enterprise and then correlates them to the model and research methods used by political analysts to draw its conclusions Literature review The definit ion of political science has changed over the years since the 1950s. Initially, the discipline had been comprehensively descriptive in nature, but has since relied on statistical methods. Political analysts have over the years rejected political science as a science based on two approaches: practical and philosophical objections. In the first one believes that political behaviors are very complex and therefore mislead researchers having made the data collection quite hard. Philosophical objections, on the other hand, base their arguments on the fact that human reasoning cannot be objectively quantified. This leaves observations and perceptions by the researchers as the only alternative (Rosenberg, 2012)2.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Political analysis lacks a standard methodology for quantifying the validity of its measurements and therefore makes it hard for ob taining testable results. The complexity and uniqueness of the political analysis make the results of the study unreliable. According to Cherry (2010)3, reliability is a measure of consistency of a given measurement. For a test to be reliable, it must deliver similar results on a regular basis. The results are independent of the reason for administering the test, but should be approximately similar every time the test is done (Cherry, 2010)4. Unfortunately, mathematical quantification is not possible in political analysis when making approximations about the reliability of a given test. Two aspects are normally considered in science: inter-later and internal reliability. In order to assess the first one, a minimum two independent judges should score the test. The scores are then analyzed to establish the consistency of the rater’s approximations. The best way to test inter-rater reliability is to assign each rater to test a score (Silva, 2010)5. Then, the test administrator c omputes the correlation between two ratings to establish the degree of inter-rater reliability. On the other hand, internal reliability is a measure of consistency of test results conducted on the same test. The researches compare test variables, which measure the same construct to establish the tests internal consistency(Cherry, 2010)6. On many occasions, these tests involve very similar or repetitive questions that are utilized to assess the reliability. Since the questions are identical and are structured to answer the same phenomena, the researcher must provide answers to the question in a similar fashion meaning that the test has internal consistency (Cherry, 2010)7. Political analysis lacks a standard methodology for quantifying the validity of its measurements and therefore makes it hard to obtain testable results. Additionally, science capitalizes on knowledge to explain how phenomena is the way it is. As a result, theories and testable predictions based on empirical reliabi lity are created. The more similar observations are observed, the more the theory is deemed to be testable and therefore correct. Poor consistency of the human behavior thus reduces the rate of testability of the theories and consequently reduces the reliability of the results (Silva, 2010)8.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Is Political Analysis a Scientific Enterprise? Should It Be? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Political analysis is a social study and involves numerous examples of complex human behaviors. Human beings are neither identical nor interchangeable. Their complex nature makes them lack a general conclusion based on the results of the methodology used. In science, generalization is a must concept and relies on the building relationships between two or more facts and utilizes empirical generalization to reach a credible conclusion (Buttolph Reynolds, 2012)9. Since humans cannot be put in a Petri dish in an effort to control their behaviors to study certain variables, the validity of the results obtained is thus questionable. It would be important to look at the definition of variability as an important factor in quantifying scientific studies (Silva, 2010)10. Validity is defined as the ability of an instrument to achieve its goals. Tests should be valid in order to ease interpretation, and provide accurate application of the results. Validity is a measure that uses research methods that can demonstrate the existence of a predefined relationship between the test and the behavior it is supposed to measure. There are two types of validity measures: content and face validity. In case the elements of the test represent the whole range of possible results the test should cover, then the test have content validity (Silva, 2010)11. Content validity draws the test questions from a wide pool of items covering a wide range of topics. Face validity, on the other hand, is a component of cont ent validity that is determined when the person assessing the instrument makes a conclusion that measures the desired element or trait in the test (Cherry, 2010). Quantification While scientists insist on quantifiable tests, Political analysis, being a social science, relies on behaviors, values, beliefs and so on to make conclusions. This implies that their results cannot be measured accurately. Measurement is a fundamental element of science and although generalizations and assumptions are common, the quantification process must be illustrated clearly.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Some political scientists vehemently criticize this approach by citing the scientific methodologies that have been employed historically in science. Galileo, for instance, used a crude telescope to view the moon and other planets. Scientific developments in astronomy were developed from the foundations he discovered through more and more precise observation instruments. Another fundamental element of science is the ability to offer transmissible knowledge. Scientists insist that scientific knowledge must be transmissible or, in other words, they must be explicit enough to allow other scholars to analyze them and replicate their results. Unfortunately, the methodologies used in social sciences are basically based on objective and systematic observations. This means that a fundamental goal of science is left out since the results obtained cannot be verified. The theories constructed from these verifications of public inspection and results are not in a credible position to explain why phenomena behave the way it does (Fay, 1996). In the scientific world, the knowledge is used to describe things and facts, for example, how things are created and why they are what they are. On the other hand, political analysis depends on causal relationships which derive their results from correlations in order to establish useful and important information. These however fail to explain issues related to why and how (Fay, 1996)12. Falsifiability During the development of theories, it must be quite clear whether the theory is falsifiable or not. Science insists that an empirical theory fails to satisfy the fundamental of science if it cannot be proved to be either right or wrong through various tests. When a theory is found to be wrong, it gives the researchers the motivation to look for alternative theories through elimination of the previous theory. The truth is that no political setting is interchangeable. If we argue from this point, it means therefore that the results we will obtain from analysis of a political setting will be subjected to alterations once an identical study is carried out. This would consequently lead to situation where theories will be formulated today and dismissed the following day. Political analysts use case studies to come up with comprehensive theories but fail to generalize them being afraid of criticism from independent similar theories. The Organization of the American Political Science Association (2006)13 reported new developments in the scientification of political analysis. In the early 1960s, most political analysts used scientific means to build on the behaviorism during the early foundations of political science as a discipline. However, over the years, these theories have been challenged by different authors owing to their nature of lack of reliability and generalization. The line between facts and values has been a nightmare to most political scientists and other social scientists for a long time. Some held on the ar gument that values are facts, but in the real scientific world, a clear distinction between the two must be established. Epistemology As one of the key pillars of philosophy, epistemology concentrates on propositional knowledge. The political analysts utilize this approach by classifying certain elements of beliefs and values to be true or false. The results produce normative knowledge which deals with the evaluation and recommendation of what should be rather than what it is, or how it came to be. On the other hand, real science aims at creating a non-normative kind of knowledge which is based on facts or, in other words, the objective determination of what things are. While the real scientific world insists on knowledge being cumulative, the research methods used by previous experiments and results should be used as foundations of new work. Political analysts deal with variation in the settings of political arenas, governments and institutions in such a way that the conclusions fr om different studies yield different results. In their words, the repeatability, reliability and validity of the data obtained cannot be used to make a general observation. By presenting a systematic a systematic and well reasoned anticipation, science is able to make accurate predictions for future occurrence of events. Thus, science is in a position to generate predictions for the future. Social analysis fails in generalization of its theories and therefore most of its conclusions cannot be used to predict the occurrence of future events (Fay, 1996)14. Science relies on parsimony in an effort to give other researchers a chance to choose between alternatives. Scientists therefore prefer methodologies that give a vivid explanation of phenomena while maintaining few parameters. In real scientific research, deductive arguments must not necessarily be reached. These relate to arguments that are proved to be true through the use of a series of logical statements to derive a conclusion b ased on true premises (Buttolph Reynolds, 2012)15. Although deductive reasoning is used in political analysis, inductive reasoning prevails in most research work making inferences though observations and propositions (Buttolph Reynolds, 2012)16. This brings the issue of probabilistic explanation. In science, it is required that 100% accuracy be met prior to making any predictions. The use of inductive reasoning therefore forbids this practice of making prediction based on previous findings. In other words, every situation in political analysis requires an independent research and conclusion. For example, if a researcher was to research about the political situation in a country, say Britain, it would be wrong to make inferences about the United States using the results of the study. On the other hand, a scientific experiment could be reproduced to another similar case. For example, the behavior of bacteria inside a Petri dish could be used to make general conclusions about the beh avior of all similar bacteria. From the given example, several observations can be made. The situation of political institutions in Britain and America are likely to change with time. By the time the study was taken, several parameters such as the nature of economy and the general perceptions of the respondents will have changed. The scientific study of bacteria in the same environment and conditions will yield similar results day-in-day-out. We therefore concluded that the Petri dish experimental results are reproducible, valid and reliable. Reliability is important in this case in order to assess the practicability and efficiency of the materials used to gather the data (Martin, 1994)17. Conclusion The paper analyzed the scientific approach of research and made equal comparison to the study of political science. The scientific approach look more tangible and reflective results compared to the social science approach. The paper concluded that political analysis therefore cannot be classified as a scientific enterprise. For a long time, the study has based its reflections on descriptions obtained through observations. The fact that these systems are undergoing transformations to include statistical inferences suggests the birth of a new approach to the subject. At the moment, the scientific requirements for a theory to satisfy the discussed expectations of a scientific study do not allow the prevalent method in political analysis to be described as a scientific approach. Deductive reasoning may not be practical in political analysis since every time the research is carried out, the probability of obtaining different data is high. Bibliography Buttolph, J Reynolds, T H, 2012, Political Science Research Methods, 7th edn., sage Publications, http://college.cqpress.com/sites/psrm/Home/chapter2.aspx Cherry, K, 2010, Reliability and Validity, viewed on http://psychology.about.com/od/researchmethods/f/validity.htm Fay, B, 1996, Contemporary philosophy of social sci ence: a multicultural approach. Blackwell, Oxford. Martin, M, 1994, Readings in the philosophy of social science, MIT Press, Cambridge. Rosenberg, A, 2012, Philosophy of social science, Westview Press, Boulder, CO. Silva, E, 2010, Racism without racists: color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States, Rowman Littlefield Publishers, Lanham. The Organization of the American Political Science Association, 2006, Proceedings of the American Political Science Association, Vol. 1, pp. 5-15, First Annual Meeting, 1904. Footnotes 1 Fay, B, 1996, Contemporary philosophy of social science: a multicultural approach. Blackwell, Oxford. 2 Rosenberg, A, 2012, Philosophy of social science, Westview Press, Boulder, CO. 3 Cherry, K, 2010, Reliability and Validity, viewed on http://psychology.about.com/od/researchmethods/f/validity.htm 4 Cherry, K, 2010, Reliability and Validity, viewed on http://psychology.about.com/od/researchmethods/f/validity.htm 5 Silva, E, 201 0, Racism without racists: color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States, Rowman Littlefield Publishers, Lanham. 66 Cherry, K, 2010, Reliability and Validity, viewed on http://psychology.about.com/od/researchmethods/f/validity.htm 7 Cherry, K, 2010, Reliability and Validity, viewed on http://psychology.about.com/od/researchmethods/f/validity.htm 8 Silva, E, 2010, Racism without racists: color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States, Rowman Littlefield Publishers, Lanham. 9 Buttolph, J Reynolds, T H, 2012, Political Science Research Methods, 7th edn., sage Publications, http://college.cqpress.com/sites/psrm/Home/chapter2.aspx Cherry, K, 2010, Reliability and Validity, viewed on http://psychology.about.com/od/researchmethods/f/validity.htm 10 Silva, E, 2010, Racism without racists: color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States, Rowman Littlefield Publishers, Lanham. 11 Silva, E , 2010, Racism without racists: color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States, Rowman Littlefield Publishers, Lanham. 12 Fay, B, 1996, Contemporary philosophy of social science: a multicultural approach. Blackwell, Oxford. 13 The Organization of the American Political Science Association, 2006, Proceedings of the American Political Science Association, Vol. 1, pp. 5-15, First Annual Meeting, 1904. 14 Fay, B, 1996, Contemporary philosophy of social science: a multicultural approach. Blackwell, Oxford. 15 Buttolph, J Reynolds, T H, 2012, Political Science Research Methods, 7th edn., sage Publications, http://college.cqpress.com/sites/psrm/Home/chapter2.aspx Cherry, K, 2010, Reliability and Validity, viewed on http://psychology.about.com/od/researchmethods/f/validity.htm 16 Buttolph, J Reynolds, T H, 2012, Political Science Research Methods, 7th edn., Sage Publications, http://college.cqpress.com/sites/psrm/Home/chapter2.aspx 17 Martin, M, 1994, Re adings in the philosophy of social science, MIT Press, Cambridge.

Workflow design and management Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Workflow design and management - Case Study Example The fourteen day period that is taken up during the assessing of whether a student is qualified or not for credit transfers is impressive but can still be considerably improved. Downloading the application form and attaching supporting information before submission is vital for the commencement of the process. It is also very important that the Clerical Officer counter-checks the applications to ensure that all the forms are appropriately filled, and all supporting information attached. This considerable cuts out the time that would have been wasted on application forms not properly completed. There is, however, an overloading of the same Clerical Officer on aspects of the entire process that would have otherwise been done away with. Instead of having the clerical officer making photocopies of the application form AS 41c and supporting documents according to the number of subjects the student is claiming credit transfer, it would be more efficient if the students were to be involved. The students should be required to make applications depending on the number of subjects they are claiming credit transfers. This would reduce the work-load of the Clerical Officer. The time spent in sending the forms back and forth could also be reduced by making use of an integrated system of analysis. A system that connects the Clerical Officer to the teachers directly would be effective. When the Clerical Officer inputs data of students who have applied for credit transfers to the system, the teachers could have access to the same system, but in terms of the department. The teachers would then indicate into the same system whether a certain application has been accepted or denied. The clerical Officer would then generate the appropriate letters. As the letters are being signed by the Programme Leader, the applications would then be returned back to the Clerical Officer by the Department

A Critique of Plato's Just Society using the Notion of Fairness from Essay

A Critique of Plato's Just Society using the Notion of Fairness from John Rawls - Essay Example He viewed that there could be a harmony or just society, only when these inequalities were either factored in or eliminated, and this notion of 'fairness' will be presented as a fundamental critique of Plato. The most explicit discussion of the tripartite part of the soul, and the primacy of reason therein, occurs in the fourth book of the Republic (435b). One of the first preliminary aspects of the soul, is that although the parts of the soul are distinct in their virtues, Socrates also stresses that in the functioning of these parts, the soul must be considered as a â€Å"whole† [Plato, 1992, p. 436a]. What is implied by this, is as follows. If for example, one desired food, and this desire originated in the appetites, it would still require reason both to discern the means of satisfying this desire, but also it would require reason to know when one has had enough for the sake of health in which case, reason would act upon the ‘will’ to suppress desire, so to sp eak. This is a ‘chain of command’, so to speak, which will be explored both as it is outlined in this section of the Republic, but also in terms of how this is established in the three classes of the state [Haworth, 2004, p. 13]. Further, it is important to similarly stress that the appetites are as necessary for reason for the sake of surviving. In other words, someone who had no appetite would starve, just as someone who had no ‘will’ or ‘spirit’ would have no discipline to stop eating or drinking. Thus, Socrates stresses that although reason is given privilege within the scheme of the soul, he also stresses that all three aspects constitute the ‘whole’, and this ‘whole’ is necessary for surviving. In some ways, his position on the soul can be said to be a refutation of Thrasymachus' position from the beginning of the dialogue where he argues that the just society is the one ruled by the â€Å"stronger† [Adams and Dyson, 2003, p. 4]. Socrates defines this relation, using, for example, the compulsion to â€Å"drink† extending from the appetites or the â€Å"irrational† [Plato, 1992, p. 439d] part of the soul: â€Å"Doesn’t that which forbids in such cases come into play – if it comes into play at all – as a result of rational calculation, while what drives and drags them to drink is a result of feelings and diseases? Apparently† [Plato, 1992, p. 439c-d]. Although the surface appearance, suggests that there is a complete opposition between the appetites on the one hand, or, desire, impulse, etc.., and on the other hand, the rational component of the soul, it is as though there is a harmony of opposites which Socrates is arguing here. What is implied by this, is as follows. Even though reason and irrationality are opposed, they are united in the very functioning of the soul. While the appetites are controlled through the â€Å"spirit† or the will [Plato, 1992, p. 440a], it is reason which makes the decision concerning how much control, or when to control the appetites. Again, it is important that we have appetites, and that they are necessary for survival, which reason is aware of, for the same reasoning, that is, for the sake of surviving or health, they must also be controlled. In keeping with Socrates example of drinking, it is often the case that an alcoholic, who is overcome by their appetites, may end up dying or being sick at the very least. Thus, the relationship between the parts of the soul, can be described as created a

Managing People Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Managing People - Term Paper Example Strategic human resource management should be adopted by the company in order to address the issues in its operations. The starting point of all the issue for any company is its relative strength in terms of strategic management—the clarity of the goals of the company in line with its mission and vision, in order to create good strategies in order to meet those goals. Without the goals and clear strategic direction, even those which are perceived to be the best human resource practices will mean nothing if they would not play a role in fulfilling a company’s objectives FTL’s lacks strategic direction as a company until Steve Davidson has started to craft a vision, as according to the case, â€Å"Steve had considered Anders management style to be too ‘seat of the pants’ and worked hard with his management team to create a vision for the business (Mason 2000, 11).† The company’s lack of strategic direction leads a cluttered approach to human resource management as evident in the policies which do not support any concrete corporate objective for the company. Because the company lacks strategic direction, an organizational structure is not tailored to support any strategy to fulfill a corporate objective. This leads to a corporate structure that often leads to conflicts, and one that does not utilise an integrated approach to the company’s operations. The shift of organizational structure from individualised jobs to work teams in order to promote a team working culture is vital in order to address the integration issues that arise from customer frustrations and lack of ownership. Structure plays a huge role in the organization’s processes, as stated in the case, â€Å"After the training had been completed there was a noticeable improvement in attitude between and within teams, although changes in staffing and team structures tended to undermine the benefits (Mason 2000, 14).† Communication is very vital to

Effect of Alcohol on Reaction Times: Experiment

Effect of Alcohol on Reaction Times: Experiment The experiment tested whether alcohol had any effect on reaction time. Abstract Objective: The experiment tested whether alcohol had any effect on reaction time. Method: Subjects were required to identify the threshold at which a flickering light became constant (critical flicker fusion threshold) using a computerised flicker fusion system.   Frequency increased at a rate of 4 hertz per second.   Critical flicker fusion threshold is a well accepted and documented non-invasive measure of reaction time.   Ten female subjects were tested under control conditions and following ingestion of 2 units (80 mg) alcohol.   It was hypothesised that alcohol would cause an increase in reaction time, which would translate to a delay in recognising the critical flicker fusion threshold, thus higher frequency results. Results:   Ingestion of 2 units (80mg) of alcohol was associated with an increase in mean critical flicker fusion threshold from 14.6 hertz to 15.4 hertz (p Conclusion:   2 units of alcohol had the effect of increasing reaction time by an average of 0.2 seconds, which has serious implications for the consumption of alcohol prior to tasks involving complex motor skills such as driving. Introduction Alcohol and its effects Alcohol is believed to be the oldest drug used by humans, predating even the use of opium by 2000 years to around 8000 BC (Kerr, Hindmarch 1998).   Whilst legal age limits exist for the purchase of alcohol in the United Kingdom, it is widely regarded within the Western world as an acceptable drug. In recent household studies in the UK it was found that 75% of men and 60% of women consumed at least one alcoholic drink per week.   In addition, 40% of men and 23% of women were found to have exceeded the national recommendations on alcohol consumption within the previous week (Office for National Statistics 2005).   The Institute For Alcohol Studies ranks the United Kingdom as 9th in per capita consumption of pure alcohol within European Nations, with 9.6 litres of pure alcohol being consumed per capita in 2002 (Institute for Alcohol Studies 2005). Alcohol is known for its psychoactive effects, which include alterations in vision, motor tasks and skills such as car driving and flying.   In addition it is repeatedly shown, whether anecdotally or via scientific measurements, that a strong correlation exists between alcohol consumption and violence. Alcohol is known to be a contributory factor in road accidents, with 9% of casualties showing evidence of alcohol consumption, this figure rising to 31% when considering pedestrians (The Scottish Office Central Research Unit 1998).   Research carried out in the 1980s by the Transport Research Laboratory indicated that alcohol was involved in 35% of fatal road traffic accidents, with the figure falling slightly to 31.5% in a similar study completed in 2000 (Tunbridge, Keigan James 2001).  Ã‚   However neither of these reports explained why the association existed between alcohol and road traffic accidents, whether resulting in death or not.   Of import for this report is the association between alcohol and reaction time.   The majority of alcohol consumers can identify a slowing down of their faculties following alcohol consumption, regardless of claims to the contrary.  Ã‚   Research has shown that alcohol impairs the ability of individuals to carry out complex motor tasks. One example involved bus drivers being asked to drive a vehicle through a narrow space, or highlighting the fact that the gap was too narrow if necessary.   It was shown that alcohol consumption was correlated with a reduced ability to accurately guide the bus through the gap, coupled with an inability to accurately gauge the width of the gap.   Hence bus drivers who had consumed alcohol were more likely to judge a gap as to be wide enough when it was not, than those who had not consumed alcohol and whose spatial awareness remained intact (Rang, Dale Ritter 1999a). Recommended stopping distances at 30 miles per hour are 23 metres / 75 feet, of which 9 metres / 30 feet are the ‘thinking distance’.   This is based on an average reaction time of 0.7 seconds when the car is travelling at 44 feet / second.   Therefore if reaction times increase, stopping distances will do so also, with serious implications in an accident. It has been indicated by some research that low levels of alcohol consumption have very little effect on reaction time if attention could be focussed on a single objective (Jaaskelainen et al. 1996).   Where attention needs to be divided between task objectives, even low blood alcohol levels were found to impair performance.   This suggests that alcohol is not going to greatly impair reaction time during simple tasks, but complex tasks which require several aspects to the performance would be much more likely to be impaired.   This was further supported by the research of Bartholow et al which found that response times per se were relatively unaffected by the presence of alcohol but the ability to respond appropriately to tasks that required complex attention were (Bartholow et al. 2003).   Indeed the authors implicate alcohol in impairments of cognitive processing, rather than the motor responses that result from these processes.   They cite data from studies that have sho wn that alcohol acts to reduce the ability to respond to stimuli as well as interpret and process the correct relevance of these stimuli.   This inability to respond fully to cues from the environment is described as the attention-allocation model, as the brain is selective in which cues are actually attended to and processing within the brain.   Further research has indicated that alcohol can sometimes actually improve the ability of subjects to resist distraction from a task (Erblich, Earleywine 1995) but this is not in keeping with the majority of research. Given the existing data this experiment was designed to assess the ability of female subjects to respond to a change in a single form of stimulus.   There was no distraction, nor a divided attention focus required, in an effort to ensure that the effects of alcohol on reaction time, if any, were more obvious. Flicker fusion threshold The human eye is capable of distinguishing between intermittent stimuli such as flickering light, up to a threshold, which is usually around 16 Hertz.   The frequency at which the human eye is no longer able to distinguish individual stimuli is defined as the critical flicker fusion threshold.   It is at this frequency that the individual stimuli have fused to form a single continuous stimulus.   The flicker fusion threshold will vary between individuals depending on their eyesight, hence the use of a number os study participants.   It will also vary between an individual’s readings depending on their reaction time at each stage – ie the time at which they actually consciously register that the hitherto flickering stimulus has now become constant and are able to respond to this knowledge.   The purpose of this experiment was to use the measurement of critical flicker fusion threshold as a correlate to reaction time.   For this experiment the experimental hypothesis was that alcohol acts to increase the reaction time of female subjects. The null hypothesis was that alcohol has no effect on the reaction time of female subjects.   Thus it would be expected that an individual with a slower reaction time would give results indicating a higher critical flicker fusion threshold, measured in hertz.   In other words it would be expected that the frequency at which subjects indicated that the flickering light (for full details of methodology please see below) had fused into a single light would be higher under alcohol conditions than control.   This would not be due to an enhanced ability to differentiate between flickering and constant light, rather a delay in the ability for this change to register and be processed by the brain, and the subject to press the button. Method Ten female subjects aged from 18-35 years, with a body mass index of 19-28 were selected as part of an open experiment into the effect of alcohol on reaction time.   All subjects were informed of the purpose of the experiment prior to taking part and were required to complete medical questionnaires to exclude medication that might affect the results of the experiment.  Ã‚   Known negative effects of alcohol consumption were also excluded and subjects all had a history of regular alcohol consumption of at least 2 units, once per week. Subjects were required to refrain from eating or drinking for the 2 hours prior to each test, which took place on consecutive days, with the control (no alcohol) test taking place prior to the alcohol test.   The 2 hour nil by mouth regulation was put in place in an effort to standardise the absorption of the alcohol by reducing stomach contents to a more uniform amount, thus providing a similar surface area available for alcohol absorption in each study participant. On arriving at the test room subjects were required to complete a health and safety questionnaire and were again reminded of the aims and purposes of the experiment.   Subjects were free to leave at any time, and signed consent forms to allow their results to be used.   Following the initial briefing subjects were given a training briefing on the specialised equipment and allowed to take a small number of practise tests to familiarise themselves with the equipment requirements.   Following this training period a five-minute break was allowed. For the test itself each subject was required to drink 250ml of pure orange juice, with a five-minute timespan being allowed for the drink to be consumed.   Forty minutes after the drink had been consumed subjects critical flicker fusion threshold was tested using the Model 12021 Flicker Fusion System (Lafayette Instruments). This time scale was used as the 2 units of alcohol would have reached a peak blood alcohol concentration of approximately 80 mg/100 ml 45 minutes following ingestion (Wilson, Benjamin Sreenivasan 2003).   Assuming absorption and metabolism at the accepted 4 mmol/l per hour (Rang, Dale Ritter 1999b), the alcohol would be expected to have been removed completely from the body within 6 hours (Wilson, Benjamin Sreenivasan 2003). Subjects were requested to look in to the binocular eye piece at two white simultaneous lights.   The use of a separate light for each eye was used to prevent differences in eye focussing from causing conflicting critical flicker fusion thresholds. The initial flash frequency of 4 hertz was set to ascending at a rate of 4 hertz / second.   The subject was provided with a push button connected to a 1 metre cable and was required to push the button when the flickering ceased and the lights became fused to a single light emission.   The point at which the button was pressed was taken as the critical flicker fusion threshold.  Ã‚   Each subject was required to undertake ten reaction time recordings. The experimental procedures on day 2 were identical to day 1, except that 2 units of alcohol (vodka), approximately 80mg of pure alcohol, had been added to the 250ml of pure orange juice that the subjects were required to drink.   A further ten reaction time recordings were made using the flicker fusion system. Results Each subject was able to provide 10 reaction time recordings, which ranged from a minimum of 11.5 Hertz (subject 9, recording 6, no alcohol) to a maximum of 19.4 Hertz (subject 3, recording 8, with alcohol).   The mean for the control / no alcohol test was 14.6 + 3.6 Hertz.   The mean for the alcohol test was 15.4 + 4.0 Hertz. Tables 1 and 2 below show the individual reaction times of each subject participant on the two tests. Table 1. Reaction times of 5 female subjects with and without alcohol, as measured by critical flicker fusion threshold Subject 1 Subject 2 Subject 3 Subject 4 Subject 5 Reaction test number None Alcohol None Alcohol None Alcohol None Alcohol None Alcohol 1 15.0 17.2 14.3 16.9 18.2 18.1 13.4 17.5 12.5 13.1 2 14.1 13.6 15.5 17.2 17.9 19.3 14.4 14.9 12.9 12.5 3 16.2 16.2 15.8 16.7 16.5 18.5 14.8 14.5 12.3 12.8 4 13.6 16.1 16.3 17.9 17.7 17.9 14.3 14.8 12.8 12.6 5 12.5 14.3 14.9 15.5 16.9 18.9 14.9 13.5 12.4 12.4 6 13.8 15.5 15.7 16.1 17.4 18.3 14.1 14.6 12.6 12.9 7 12.0 14.8 15.4 18.5 16.0 17.6 15.1 14.9 13.1 13.5 8 11.8 12.9 14.8 17.1 17.3 19.4 15.3 15.1 13.9 13.2 9 12.9 12.7 15.7 16.7 18.0 17.9 13.3 13.5 12.8 12.6 10 13.0 15.8 15.0 17.8 16.7 18.9 16.7 14.7 14.1 11.9 Mean 13.5 14.9 15.3 17.0 17.3 18.5 14.6 14.8 12.9 12.8 Median 13.3 15.2 15.5 17.0 17.4 18.4 14.6 14.8 12.8 12.7 Table 2. Reaction times of 5 female subjects with and without alcohol, as measured by critical flicker fusion threshold Subject 6 Subject 7 Subject 8 Subject 9 Subject 10 Reaction test number None Alcohol None Alcohol None Alcohol None Alcohol None Alcohol 1 13.9 15.1 16.5 15.6 12.8 14.5 13.6 15.5 16.5 15.4 2 16.5 15.9 14.3 15.1 12.6 13.5 14.9 14.2 15.9 18.1 3 14.2 14.6 12.9 14.0 12.4 12.4 15.0 14.8 15.7 14.6 4 14.9 15.5 13.9 16.8 12.0 12.6 15.8 14.8 15.2 16.8 5 14.1 15.6 13.5 16.7 13.1 13.8 14.7 13.9 16.4 16.5 6 16.5 15.8 13.4 18.1 13.5 14.2 11.5 16.7 16.2 16.4 7 13.2 13.3 13.9 15.1 12.3 14.2 15.4 14.6 16.8 15.8 8 14.5 15.6 14.2 15.8 12.9 14.6 15.3 16.1 17.1 16.2 9

Essay --

The Discourse on Inequality by Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean Jacques Rousseau though a philosopher in the eighteenth century sense, was not what would now be called a ‘philosopher.’ Nevertheless he had a great deal on influence on the philosophical workings of his time and indeed of every subsequent period that followed him. Not only this but also he exerted his influence in the fields of literature, politics etc. Irrespective of the credibility one attaches to him as a philosopher, one cannot over look his influence as a primary social force. Rousseau was a philosopher that appealed to one’s good sense, one’s heart and so for this purpose has been termed as a Romantic philosopher. Others have accredited him with producing facts and ideas that are entirely non-human but nonetheless have been derived from human emotions and other related aspects of an individual’s life. He has also given rise to a political philosophy of sorts, which is a far cry from the absolute monarchies that prevailed in that time. However experts point out that this philosophy is only a weak attempt at democracy and so has been termed as ‘pseudo-democratic’ by many of them. Those that consider themselves true reformers have been divided into two groups; one that follows the ideals of John Locke and the other that associates itself with the premises presented by Rousseau. Therefore it has been often suggested that Hitler is an outcome of Rousseau whereas Roosevelt and Churchill belong to Locke. Though his literary career started rather late and was full of eventualities, Rousseau’s second essay a â€Å"Discourse on Inequality† (1754) remains largely popular to this day. This is because it consists of ideas that were unheard of at the time. However it must be noted t... ...ecause of the Industrial Revolution. Since having more ensures a certain position for an individual in the society thus it brings about social inequality in the environment. The above analysis shows that Jean Jacques Rousseau’s Discourses do consist of some valid and thought-provoking ideas. One is forced to consider the very institutions that one blithely takes for granted and in the process realizes that these man made institutions are responsible for bringing about social inequality in the society. Thus one can say that the argument which suggests that Rousseau’s theory is correct in assuming that institutions bring about inequality and serve to trap the modern human race. Bibliography 1. Ritter, Alan (Ed.). Rousseau's Political Writings: Discourse on Inequality, Discourse on Political Economy on Social Contract. New York: WW Norton & Company, 1999.

Jacksonian Democracy Essay

The Jacksonian democrats saw themselves as the guardians of the United States Constitution, political democracy, individual liberty, and equality of economic opportunity. However, were they really all they claimed to be? They did attempt to increase the power of lower classes while decreasing the influence of the rich and powerful. Economically, they benefited from governing during a time of huge advances in transportation, which boosted commerce and helped the common man. The Jacksonian democrats portrayed themselves as saviors of the common people, but this is a controversial subject. They were unusually wealthy, supported equality between white men only, enacted devastating economic policies, and disregarded the capability of the federal government. The Jacksonians saw themselves as guardians but as for the people, only a select few may have seen that. During the Jacksonian reign, numerous advancements sped up the growth of the United States. A market revolution occurred as cash-crop agriculture and capitalist manufacturing replaced artisan economy. Despite the prosperity, a split was emerging between the industrializing, urban north, agrarian, rural South, and the expanding West. The Jacksonians passed the Tariff of 1828, which opened opportunity for western agriculture and New England manufacturing, but was damaging to the South. Andrew Jackson believed that the US bank placed too much control into the hands of a wealthy few (Document B). Therefore, Jackson vetoed the bank’s re-charter in 1832. In attempt to benefit the lower, working classes, he placed the federal money in â€Å"pet† state banks. This attempt weakened the national currency. Like most Jacksonian economic policies, it failed. Jacksonians tried to assist only the whites through economic policies but failed in that also. Foreign visitors viewed that in America, every man is free and independent (Document D), but there was great division in American attitude. Disturbances and riots broke out across the country by minorities (Document E), because they were not included in the equality efforts of the Jacksonians, which were focused on white males. Jackson’s hypocrisy and brutality in his Indian removal practices showed the non-universal  principles held by the democrats. The unconstitutional, uneven power in the three branches of government was revealed when Jackson violated chief justice Marshall’s decision on the Cherokee when he forced them out. Resulting in the â€Å"Trail of Tears†(Document G) Fearful of angering Southern voters, Jacksonians veered away from extending equality policies to slaves. Women as well received little betterment during the Jacksonian era. Although viewed as defenders of all common men, Jacksonian democrats shunned minorities and only assisted white me n. Andrew Jackson was the first president to fully use the powers of the executive branch and establish it as an equal if not superior branch. Henry Clay viewed Jackson as dictatorial and unconstitutional and tried to make others see that, but Jacksonian propaganda continued to portray Jackson as a common man. Jacksonian democrats did not keep the three branches of government separate and equal, like it says in the constitution. Jacksonians were strict constitutionalists, vetoing things that did not benefit the whole country and eliminating the bank. However, they also participated in the burning nationalism existing at the time. Jacksonians believed in a firm union. In the compromise Tariff of 1832, they reduced the previous tariffs, but also included a Force Bill, which authorized the President to use arms to collect dues in South Carolina, which goes against the Jacksonian belief in states’ rights and their disbelief in a strong military. Jacksonian democrats were above all outstanding propagandists. They were able to portray themselves as defenders of the common man, while they usually tended to be anything but common. They were wealthy and often thought that ‘common man’ officials were inefficient and corrupt. They also tried to further reform movements but ended up hurting the economic opportunity. Although often supporters of states’ rights and individuality, they also were strong nationalists. Jacksonians strived to preserve the unifying principles that the Constitution contained, but acted in opposition of it when they asserted the overwhelming power of the executive branch. Jacksonian democracy did allow more people to vote than ever before and made government more directly responsible to the people. Finally, they established a strong executive, directly responsible to the people, and  increased faith in government. Overall, Jacksonians honestly attempted to help common Americans.

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